Fighting Words: Endnotes & Bibliography

Notes to Fighting-Words Post

ENDNOTES

---

[i] State v. Chaplinsky, 18 A.2d 754, 91 N.H. 310, in Free Law Project, CourtListener, https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/3576028/state-v-chaplinsky/ (accessed May 3, 2019).

[ii] Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire, 315 U.S. 568 (1942), Google Scholar, https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=124249671461500618 (accessed May 3, 2019).

[iii] Edwards, et al. v. South Carolina, 372 U.S. 229 (1963), Google Scholar, https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=527941814843853341 (accessed May 6, 2019).

[iv] Terminiello v. Chicago, 337 U.S. 1 (1949), Google Scholar, https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=2189837708321658845 (accessed May 8, 2019).

[v] Street v. New York, 394 U.S. 576 (1969), https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=6391101560513832626; Cohen v. California, 403 U.S. 15 (1971), in Google Scholar, https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=7398433541275578772 (accessed May 5, 2019).

[vi] Smith v. Collin, 439 US 916, 99 S. Ct. 291, 58 L. Ed. 2d 264 (1978), in FindLaw, https://caselaw.findlaw.com/us-supreme-court/439/916.html (accessed May 15, 2019); Collin v. Smith, 578 F. 2d 1197 (1978), Google Scholar, https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=7369966442251414810 (accessed May 15, 2019).

[vii] City of Houston, Texas v. Hill, 482 U.S. 451 (1987), Google Scholar, https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=3837274703391855779; Buffkins v. City of Omaha, Douglas Cty., 922 F.2d 465 (1990), in Google Scholar, https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=17585701692520011816 (accessed May 11, 2019).

[viii] R.A.V. v City of St.Paul, Minnesota, 505 U.S. 377 (1992), Google Scholar, https://scholar.google.com/scholar_casecase=14621372290934958371 (accessed May 9, 2019); Virginia v. Black, et al, 538 U.S. 343 (2003), in Google Scholar, https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=2729037874515332053 (accessed May 9, 2019).

[ix] Terminiello v. Chicago, Jackson in dissent.

[x] Snyder v. Phelps, 131 S.Ct. 1207 (2011), Alito in dissent, in Google Scholar, https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=2981429692939250360 (accessed May 10, 2019).

[xi] Street v. New York, the liberal and generally pro-free-speech Justices Earl Warren, Hugo Black and Earl Warren in dissent; Texas v. Johnson, 491 U.S. 397 (1989), Justices William Rehnquist, Byron R. White, Sandra Day O’Connor, and John Paul Stevens in dissent, Google Scholar, https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=2084618710761560217 (accessed May 7, 2019).

[xii] Chief Justice Warren Burger’s dissent in Rosenfeld v. New Jersey, US 408 U.S. 901 (1972), CaseLaw, https://caselaw.findlaw.com/us-supreme-court/408/901.html (accessed May 12, 2019).

[xiii] Cohen v. California, Justice Harry Blackmun and the liberal justices Warren and Black, generally free speech champions, in dissent; Rosenfeld v. New Jersey; Brown v. Oklahoma, 408 U.S. 914 (1972), CaseLaw, https://caselaw.findlaw.com/us-supreme-court/408/914.html (accessed May 12, 2019), for the dissent of Justices Warren Burger, Rehnquist, Blackmun, see Rosenfeld v. New Jersey. 

[xiv] Christy E. Lopez, “Disorderly (mis) Conduct: The Problem with Contempt of Cop Arrests,” American Constitution Society for Law and Policy, Issue Brief, June 2010, United States Court for the Ninth Circuit, Cout of Appeals, http://cdn.ca9.uscourts.gov/datastore/library/2015/08/10/Velazquez_ContemptOfCop.pdf (accessed May 11, 2019); Linda Friedlieb, “The Epitome of an Insult: A Constitutional Approach to Designated Fighting Words,” The University of Chicago Law Review, Vol. 72, No. 1, Symposium: Antitrust (Winter, 2005), 391, JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/4495498 (accessed May 8, 2019).

.[xv] Hess v. Indiana, 414 U.S. 105 (1973), Google Scholar, https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=4042159652386241321 (accessed May 14, 2019); Brown v. Oklahoma; Cohen v California.

[xvi] Papachristou v. City of Jacksonville, 405 U.S. 156 (1972), Google Scholar, https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=15009844350298299825 (accessed May 6, 2019).

[xvii] City of Houston, Texas v. Hill.

[xviii] Younger v. Harris, 401 U.S. 37 (1971), Justice William O. Douglas’s dissent, Google Scholar, https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=2453423928277325927 (accessed May 6, 2019).

[xix] Historical Society, Rochester, New Hampshire, “Parson Main,” https://rochesterhistoricalnh.org/2012/10/01/124/ (accessed May 14, 2019).

[xx] Trial transcript, State v. Walter Chaplinsky, September 16, 1940, New Hampshire Superior Court, Strafford County Superior Court, September Term, 1940, docket number 2119, 29-30. The printed transcript was submitted with the appellant’s brief to the New Hampshire Supreme Court in State v. Chaplinsky, 18 A.2d 754 (NH 1941), docket number 3226, the New Hampshire Law Library, Supreme Court Building, Concord, NH. Page numbers refer to the printed transcript. Both the New Hampshire and United States Supreme Courts held irrelevant the provocation Chaplinsky endured (“Chaplinsky could no more defend unlawful speech on the ground of provocation than could one of the street-crowd have defended a charge of calling Chaplinsky names on the ground that the name-caller had been incensed by Chaplinsky's teachings,” the New Hampshire Supreme Court averred.) Both Courts therefore accepted as true Chaplinsky’s account of his assaults in his brief. In State v. Walter Chaplinsky at the Strafford County Superior Court, Chaplinsky‘s account of events was confirmed or not disputed by witnesses, except on two points: Bowering asserted that he did not call Chaplinsky a “bastard,” and that Chaplinsky had called him “a Godamn Fascist.” Given that Chaplinsky‘s assault was a result of his zealous adherence to his religion, it seems unlikely that Chaplinsky would have cursed God. 

[xxi] Chaplinsky trial transcript, 25, 28-31.

[xxii] Ibid, 26 and see also Arrest Warrant, April 6, 1940, Strafford County Superior Court, William A. Grimes Justice and Administration Building, Dover, NH, docket number 2119.

[xxiii] Docket, Rochester Hew Hampshire District Court, January-December 1940, William A. Grimes Justice and Administration Building, Dover, NH.

[xxiv] State v. Chaplinsky.

[xxv] Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society, The Finished Mystery (New York: Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society, 1917), 247, as quoted in Zoe Knox, Jehovah’s “Witnesses as Un-Americans? Scriptural Injunctions, Civil Liberties, and Patriotism,” Journal of American Studies, Vol 47 (2013) 4, 1083, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/24485876 (accessed May 11, 2019).

[xxvi] Francis McDonenell, Insidious Foes: The Axis Fifth Column and the American Home Front (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), EBook, https://ebookcentral-proquest-com.exeter.idm.oclc.org/lib/phillipsexeter-ebooks/detail.action?docID=241535. Owing to the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact, American progressives and conservatives shared a belligerent anxiety about the subversive danger. The former focused on the threat posed by supposed German agents and by Nazi sympathizers and far-right anti-Semites, such as the Silver Shirts and the followers of Gerald L.K. Smith. The latter concentrated on supposed Communists and their supporters, a group broadly defined to include pacifists and many labor groups, such as the Trotskyite Socialist Workers Party. Moreover, because most isolationists were no less anxious that the U.S. bolster its military strength in a dangerous and uncertain world than were interventionists (although the former wanted to build a “Fortress America,” while the latter‘s military designs were more outwardly oriented), both camps regarded with hostility any groups, such as striking labor unions, that were seen as disruptive of efforts, well underway in 1940, to buttress U.S. military preparedness. See The Nation, “Our Enemies Within,” June 22, 1940, http://web.b.ebscohost.com.exeter.idm.oclc.org/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=30&sid=5133a0f6-afe3-4676-a220-bbb692d566c4%40 (accessed May 20, 2019).

[xxvii] Vincent Blasi, “The Pathological Perspective and the First Amendment,” Columbia Law Review, Vol 85, No. 3 (April 1985), 449-514, JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/1122510 (accessed May 14, 1985).

[xxviii] Geoffrey Stone, Perilous Times: Free Speech in Wartime, (New York: W.W. Norton, 2004), 244-255.

[xxix] Robert H. Jackson, “The Federal Prosecutor: An Address Delivered at the Second Annual Conference of United States Attorneys,” April 1, 1940, US Department of Justice, https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/ag/legacy/2011/09/16/04-01-1940.pdf (accessed May 11, 2019).

[xxx] New York Times, “Liberties Union Assails U.S. Course,” July 15, 1940, ProQuest Hisitorical Newspapers, https://search-proquest-com.exeter.idm.oclc.org/docview/105253524/E5E01946023E4F95PQ/1? (accessed May 20, 2019).

[xxxi] Life, “Jehovah’s Witnesses, Who Refuse to Salute the U.S. Flag, Hold Their National Convention,” August 12, 1940, https://books.google.com/books?id=00UEAAAAMBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false (accessed May 14, 2019).

[xxxii] Hollis W. Barber, ”Religious Liberty v Police Power: Jehovah’s Witness,” The American Political Science Association, Vol 41, No 2 (April 1947), 227. www.jstor.org/stable/1950708, (Accessed: 11-05-2019).

[xxxiii] David R. Manwaring, Render Unto Ceasar: The Flag Salute Controversy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962), 123.

On the mandated posture, see U.S. Department of Veteran Affairs, “The Pledge of Allegiance,” https://web.archive.org/web/20070520143203/http://www1.va.gov/opa/feature/celebrate/pledge.asp (accessed May 17, 2019). Jehovah’s Witnesses’ resistance to the Nazi state resistance resulted in the Witnesses’ mass imprisonment in concentration camps and the death or execution of some 950 church members, see Richard J. Evans, The Third Reich in Power (New York: Penguin Press, 2005), 255.

[xxxiv] American Civil Liberties Union, The Persecution of Jehovah’s Witnesses (New York City, 1941), 3, The Debs Collection, Indiana State University Library, http://debs.indstate.edu/a505p4_1941.pdf (accessed May 11, 2019).

[xxxv] Alec Campbell, “The Sociopolitical Origins of the American Legion,” Theory and Society, Vol. 39, No. 1 (January 2010), 1-24, JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/40587556 (accessed May 9, 2019).

[xxxvi] David Thomas Smith documents the extent of the American Legion’s role in this coercive conformity in Essays on the Persecution of Religious Minorities, Chapter 4, “Violent Civil Society: The American Legion, the State, and the Persecution of Jehovah’s Witnesses,” Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Political Science, University of Michigan, 2011, https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/84555/davidsth_1.pdf?sequence=1, (accessed May 14, 2019).

[xxxvii] Time, “Witnesses in Trouble,” June 24, 1940, http://web.b.ebscohost.com.exeter.idm.oclc.org/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=13&sid=87e72cc0-975a-4e9f-81c9-49c822545021%40sessionmgr101 (accessed May 12, 2019); American Civil Liberties Union, 6-23; New York Times, “Beaten on Refusal to Salute the Flag: 61 of Jehovah’s Witnesses Attacked in Illinois Town and Taken to Jail,” June 7, 1940, ProQuest Historical Newspapers, https://search-proquest-com.exeter.idm.oclc.org/docview/105201808/7AEAEDD6A6DE4D5BPQ (accessed May 12, 2019); Chuck E. Smith, “Review of Judging Jehovah’s Witnesses,” Journal of Law and Religion, Vol. 16, No. 2 (2001), 548; New York Times, ”Maine Mob Burns Jehovah Sect Home,” June 10, 1940,” ProQuest Historical Newspapers, https://search-proquest-com.exeter.idm.oclc.org/docview/105360956/4A7474F925684768PQ/ (accessed May 12, 2019); Time, “Witnesses in Trouble.”

[xxxviii] National Civil Liberties Bureau, War-Time Prosecutions and Mob Violence (New York: National Civil Liberties Bureau, March, 1919), 5-13, Hathi Trust, https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uiug.30112039356925 (accessed May 16, 2019); Everett Dean Martin for the National Civil Liberties Bureau, The Mob Mind vs. Civil Liberty (New York: American Civil Liberties Bureau, 1920), the Debs Collection, Indiana State University, http://debs.indstate.edu/m379m6_1920.pdf (accessed May 16, 2019); “John Lord O’Brian, “Uncle Sam’s Spy Policies,” Forum, Vol. 61, (April 1919), 414-415 [407-416], Unz Review, http://www.unz.com/print/Forum-1919apr-00407/ (accessed May 18, 2019), John W. Caughey, Their Majesties The Mob (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1960), 110-132.

[xxxix] Christopher Cappozolla, “The Only Badge Needed Is Your Patriotic Fervor: Vigilance, Coercion, and the Law in World War I America,” The Journal of American History, Vol. 88, No. 4 (Mar., 2002), 1354-1382, JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/2700601 (accessed May 10, 2019); on the prominent role the American Legion played in this coercive violence, see 1379-82.

[xl] Henry May, The End of American Innocence: 192-1917 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1959), 387.

[xli] Walter Lippmann, “Constitutional Checks and Balances,” Los Angeles Times, April 27, 1937, ProQuest Historical Newspapers, https://search-proquest-com.exeter.idm.oclc.org/docview/164702806/753354AF70764F61PQ/ (accessed May 19, 2019); for Lippmann’s friendship with Frankfurter, see Ronald Steel, Walter Lippmann and the American Century (New York: Little Brown, 1980), 139, 220-23.

[xlii] Arthur Warner, “The Truth About the American Legion,” The Nation, July 6, 1921, ProQuest The Nation Archive, http://web.b.ebscohost.com.exeter.idm.oclc.org/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=4&sid=fa7be2f6-b396-4ede-b7fe-03d529f673f0%40pdc-v-sessmgr02 (accessed May 20, 2019).

[xliii] George Seldes, Facts and Facsism (New York: In Fact, Inc., 1943), Internet Archive, https://ia800209.us.archive.org/12/items/FactsAndFascism/FactsandFascism.pdf (accessed May 23, 2019).

[xliv] Max Lerner, Ideas Are Weapons (New York: Viking, 1939), 23, Internet Archive, https://ia600804.us.archive.org/24/items/lerner_ideas/lerner_ideas.pdf (accessed May 21, 2019).

[xlv] James Wechsler, “The Coughlin Terror,” The Nation, July 22, 1939, EBSCO American Periodicals, http://web.b.ebscohost.com.exeter.idm.oclc.org/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=2&sid=557d177c-6c8f-43f9-ad3d-d949d8054965%40pdc-v-sessmgr05 (accessed May 17, 2019).

[xlvi] New York Times, “Mr. Murphy’s Address on Intolerance,” January 8, 1940, ProQuest Historical Newspapers, https://search-proquest.com.exeter.idm.oclc.org/docview/105191922/43686DC69E3A4F49PQ/1 (accessed May 21, 2019). On the perception of a domestic “Fascist” threat in the interwar U.S, see Richard Steigmann-Gall, “Star-Spangled Fascism: American Interwar Political Extremism in Comparative Perspective,” Social History, 42:1, 94-119, DOI: 10.1080/03071022.2016.1256592 (accessed May 20, 2019).

[xlvii] Quoted in David M. Bixby, “The Roosevelt Court, Democratic Ideology, and Minority Rights: Another Look at United States v. Classic,” Yale Law Journal, Vol. 90, Iss. 4 (1981), 767 https://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=6649&context=ylj (accessed 5/9/ 2019).

[xlviii] Dorothy Thompson, “On the Record: The Race Against Freedom,” Washington Post, March 13, 1941, ProQuest, https://search-proquest-com.exeter.idm.oclc.org/docview/151390911/CAB4013AE364580PQ (accessed May 20, 2019).

[xlix] Max Lerner, It’s Later Than You Think: The Need For a Militant Democracy (New York: Viking, 1938), Internet Archive (although first published in 1938, the Internet Archive holds the 1943 edition), https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.74569/page/n7 (accessed May 19, 2019). See title page.

[l] Max Lerner, Ideas Are Weapons (New York: Viking, 1939), 22-24, Internet Archive, https://ia600804.us.archive.org/24/items/lerner_ideas/lerner_ideas.pdf (accessed May 11, 2019); reprinted from Max Lerner, “Propaganda‘s Golden Age, The Nation, (Nov 11, 1939), 522-524, EBSO American Periodicals, http://web.b.ebscohost.com.exeter.idm.oclc.org/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=4&sid=969a5960-d335-46b3-97c6-6c4be90351a4%40sessionmgr103 (accessed May 22, 2019).

[li] Lewis Mumford, Faith for Living (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1940), 81, Internet Archive, https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.190139/page/n81 (accessed May 17, 2019). Internet Archive holds the UK edition, published in 1941; for the details of the US publication, see Kirkus Reviews, https://www.kirkusreviews.com/book-reviews/lewis-mumford-11/faith-for-living/ (accessed May 17, 2019)

[lii] Edward A. Purcell, Jr., “American Jurisprudence Between the Wars: Legal Realism and the Crisis of Democratic Theory,” The American Historical Review, Vol. 75, No. 2 (Dec., 1969), pp. 424-446, JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/1849692; (accessed May 18, 2019); for Realists on the Court, see, Kevin MacKey, ”The Triumph of Legal Realism,” Michigan State University College of Law, January 1, 2019, Digital Commons, https://digitalcommons.law.msu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1146&context=king (accessed May 18, 2019) and George Rutherglen, ”International Shoe and the Legacy of Legal Realism,“ The Supreme Court Review, Vol. 2001 (2001), pp. 347-374, JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/3109692 (accessed May 19,, 2019).

[liii] Purcell, ”American Jurisprudence Between the Wars,” 424.

[liv] Edward A. Purcell, Jr., The Crisis of Democratic Theory: Scientific Naturalism and the Problem of Value (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1973), 158, Internet Archive, https://archive.org/details/crisisofdemocrat00edwa/page/158 (accessed May 18, 2019); also in Purcell, “American Jurisprudence Between the Wars,” 437.

[lv] Abrams v. United States, 250 U.S. 616 (1919), Google Scholar, https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=14321466231676186426&q (accessed May 23, 2019).

[lvi] Gitlow v. New York, 268 U.S. 652 (1925), Holmes in dissent, Google Scholar, https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=5505973138575755803&q=gitlow+v+new+york&hl=en&as_sdt=2006 (accessed May 11, 2019).

[lvii] Holmes to Harold Laski, March 4, 1920. Holmes-Laski Letters, ed. Mark DeWolfe Howe, Vol. 1, 249 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1953), cited in Bartleby.com, https://www.bartleby.com/73/327.html.

[lviii] Karl Loewenstein, “Militant Democracy and Fundamental Rights, II,” The American Political Science Review, Vol. 31, No. 4 (Aug. 1937), 657-58, JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/1948103 (accessed May 18, 2019).

[lix] Ibid., and Karl Loewenstein, “Democracy and Fundamental Rights, I,” The American Political Science Review, Vol. 31, No. 4 (Aug., 1937), 638-658, JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/1948103 (accessed May 18, 2019); “Legislative Control of Political Extremism in European Democracies I,” Columbia Law Review, Vol. 38, No. 4 (Apr., 1938), 591-622, JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/1116432 (accessed May 18, 2019); “Legislative Control of Political Extremism in European Democracies II,” Columbia Law Review, Vol. 38, No. 5 (May, 1938), pp. 725-774, JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/1116737 (accessed May 18, 2019).

[lx] Robert A. Kahn, "Why Do Europeans Ban Hate Speech? A Debate Between Karl Loewenstein and Robert Post," Hofstra Law Review: Vol. 41: Iss. 3 (2013), Scholarly Commons, http://scholarlycommons.law.hofstra.edu/hlr/vol41/iss3/2 (accessed May 19, 2019).

[lxi] Amherst College Archives and Special Collections, Karl Loewenstein Papers, https://www.amherst.edu/system/files/media/0218/LoewensteinFA_2011.pdf.

[lxii] Loewenstein, “Legislative Control of Political Extremism,” 592-93.

[lxiii] Loewenstein, “Legislative Control of Political Extremism, II,” 738-762; “Militant Democracy II,” 644-656.

[lxiv] West Virginia School Board v. Barnette, 319 U.S. 624 (1943). GoogleScholar, https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=8030119134463419441&q (accessed May 16, 2019).

[lxv] New York Times, “Murphy Demands Law Enforcement,“ April 20, 1939, ProQuest, https://search-proquest-com.exeter.idm.oclc.org/docview/102806779/627D9930A5E14201PQ/3 (accessed May 16, 2019); New York Times, “Guard Civil Rights, Murphy Asks Cities,” May 16, 1939, ProQuest, https://search-proquest-com.exeter.idm.oclc.org/docview/103001466/75920574FD204398PQ/1? (accessed May 16, 2019); Robert H. Jackson, “The Federal Prosecutor: An Address Delivered at the Second Annual Conference of United States Attorneys”; Laura Weinrib, “Civil Liberties Enforcement and the New Deal State,” Yale Law School, April 18, 2014, 35-38, https://law.yale.edu/system/files/area/center/isp/documents/laura_weinrib_-_civil_liberties_enforcement_and_the_new_deal_state_-_fesc.pdf (accessed May 21, 2019).

[lxvi] David P. Currie, "The Constitution in the Supreme Court: Civil Rights and Liberties, 1930-1941," Duke Law Journal 800 (1987), 819-827 [800-830], University of Chicago Law School, ChicagoUnbound, https://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=6112&context=journal_articles (accessed May 17, 2019).

[lxvii] Cantwell v Connecticut. 310 U.S. 296 (1940), Google Scholar, https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=10099999677896592458& (accessed May 9, 2019)

[lxviii] J. Woodford Howard, Jr, Mr. Justice Murphy: A Political Biography (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969), 251, Google Books,https://books.google.com/booksid=2hTWCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA561&lpg=PA561&dq#v=snippet&q=cantwell&f=false (accessed May 23, 2019).

[lxix] Cantwell v. Connecticut

[lxx] State of New Hampshire v Chaplinsky.

[lxxi] Chaplinsky v State of New Hampshire.

[lxxii] Richard Hofstader, The Paranoid Style in American Politics (New York: Knopf, 1965), Internet Archive, https://archive.org/details/TheParanoidStyleInAmericanPolitics (accessed May 14, 2019); Daniel Bell, The Radical Right (New York: Doubleday, 1963), Internet Archive, https://archive.org/details/radicalrightthen010584mbp/page/n7 (accessed May 21, 2019); David H. Bennett, The Party of Fear: From Nativist Movements to the New Right in American History (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988), 286-92.

[lxxiii] Howard Ball and Phillip J. Cooper, Of Power and Right: Hugo Black, William O. Douglas, and America’s Constitutional Revolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 145-146.

[lxxiv] Beauharnais v. Illinois, 343 U.S. 350 (1952), Google Scholar, https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=11103450757210626375, argued 1951. Although Frankfurter argued that both “fighting words” and the Cantwell dictum applied in this case, Beauharnais was actually charged with “Criminal Group Libel,” so the Court sustained that charge in the case. Loewenstein had identified group libel as a favored tactic of extremist groups in Europe, and therefore one that “militant” democracies had to identify and criminalize. In 1942, in a widely-discussed Columbia Law Review article, about which Frankfurter was no doubt familiar, David Riesman had applied Loewenstein’s methods, specifically Loewenstein’s proposed means to thwart group libel, to combating what he identified as an incipient fascist threat in American democracy. See David Riesman, “Democracy and Defamation: Control of Group Libel,” Columbia Journalism Review, Vol. 42, no 5 (May, 1942), 727-780, JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/1117690 (accessed May 18, 2019). Most scholars and jurists believe that subsequent Court decisions, especially New York Times v. Sullivan (1964), have rendered the Beauharnais decision no longer “good law.”

[lxxv] Patrick Schmidt, “The Dilemma to a Free People”: Justice Robert Jackson, Walter Bagehot, and the Creation of a Conservative Jurisprudence,” Law and History Review, Vol. 20, No. 3 (Autumn, 2002), 524, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/1556318 (accessed May 20, 2019).

[lxxvi] Kunz v. New York, 340 U.S. 290 (1951), GoogleScholar, https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=9105752986676100521 (accessed May 19, 2019). Emphasis added.

[lxxvii] Christian Science Monitor, “Order and Security May Ride on Ruling,” May 27, 1949, ProQuest, https://search-proquest-com.exeter.idm.oclc.org/docview/508033735/pageviewPDF (accessed May 23, 2019).

[lxxviii] Schmidt, 519-521.

[lxxix] Terminiello v. Chicago.

[lxxx] Schmidt, 523.

[lxxxi] Terminiello v. Chicago.

[lxxxii] Cafeteria Union, Local 302, et al. v. Angelos et al., 320 U.S. 293 (1943), Google Scholar, https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=6005568421109571244&q (accessed May 14, 2019). Perhaps because this case did not involve a fighting words charge, in the secondary literature on the Fighting Words doctrine that I have read I have not found any mention of this astonishing discrepancy.

[lxxxiii] Cohen v. California.

[lxxxiv] Cohen v. California (1971), Brown v. Oklahoma (1972), Rosenfeld v New Jersey (1972), Hess v. Indiana, (1973) Texas v. Johnson (1989).

[lxxxv] City of Houston, Texas v. Hill, Norwell v. City of Cincinnati, 414 U.S. 14 (1973), GoogleScholar https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=10674106125018305233 (accessed May 9, 2019).

[lxxxvi] Smith v. Collin (1978), R.A.V. v. City of St. Paul (1992), Virginia v. Black (2003), Snyder v. Phelps (2011). In his dissent in Smith v. Collin, Justice Blackman, joined by Justice White, argued that the Court should have not declined to examine the Seventh Circuit’s ruling allowing the American Nazi Party to march in Skokie, IL. Blackman stated that the Seventh Circuit’s ruling was “in some tension with Beauharnais”—and thus also with the Cantwell dictum upon which that Beauharnais was based. 

[lxxxvii] Collin v Smith, 578 F.2d 1197 (1978), quoting Gertz v Robert Welch, Google Scholar, https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=7369966442251414810&q (accessed May 8, 2019); Smith v. Collin, 439 US 916 (1978), FindLaw, 439 US 916 (accessed May 8, 2019).

[lxxxviii] Smith v. Collin, R.A.V. v. City of St. Paul, Virginia v. Black.

[lxxxix] Federal court opinions have cited the Cantwell dictum six times. Although Frankfurter made it a central element in his opinion in Beauharnais, the Supreme Court has never cited it again. The last time a Federal court deployed it was in 1978, in Collin v. Smith (the Nazis in Skokie case). GoogleScholar search, May 21, 2019. 

[xc] Bruce A. Ackerman, We The People, Volume 1: Foundations (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993), 16.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Archival Sources

Arrest Warrant, Walter Chaplinsky. April 6, 1940, Strafford County Superior Court. William A. Grimes Justice and Administration Building, Dover, NH. Docket number 2119.

Docket, Rochester Hew Hampshire District Court. January-December 1940. William A. Grimes Justice and Administration Building, Dover, NH. 

State v. Walter Chaplinsky. Docket Number 2119. Trial Transcript. September 16, 1940. New Hampshire Superior Court, Strafford County Superior Court, September Term, 1940. Appended to appellant’s brief, New Hampshire Supreme Court in State v. Chaplinsky, 18 A.2d 754 (NH 1941). Docket Number 3226. The New Hampshire Law Library, Supreme Court Building, Concord, NH. 

Other Primary Sources

Amherst College Archives and Special Collections. Karl Loewenstein Papers. https://www.amherst.edu/system/files/media/0218/LoewensteinFA_2011.pdf. Accessed May 21, 2019. 

American Civil Liberties Union. The Persecution of Jehovah’s Witnesses. New York: New York. January 1941. 3. The Debs Collection. Indiana State University Library. http://debs.indstate.edu/a505p4_1941.pdf . Accessed May 11, 2019.

Bixby, David M. “The Roosevelt Court, Democratic Ideology, and Minority Rights: Another Look at United States v. Classic,” Yale Law Journal. 90, Iss. 4 (1981): 741-815. https://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=6649&context=ylj. Accessed May 9, 2019.

Christian Science Monitor. “Order and Security May Ride on Ruling.” May 27, 1949. ProQuest. https://search-proquest-com.exeter.idm.oclc.org/docview/508033735/pageviewPDF. Accessed May 23, 2019. 

Holmes, Oliver Wendell, Jr. The Holmes-Laski Letters. Volume 1. Ed. Mark DeWolfe. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1953. In Bartleby.com, https://www.bartleby.com/73/327.html. Accessed May 19, 2019.

Jackson, Robert H. “The Federal Prosecutor: An Address Delivered at the Second Annual Conference of United States Attorneys.” US Department of Justice. April 1, 1940.https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/ag/legacy/2011/09/16/04-01-1940.pdf. Accessed May 11, 2019.

Lerner, Max. Ideas Are Weapons. New York: Viking, 1939. Internet Archive. https://ia600804.us.archive.org/24/items/lerner_ideas/lerner_ideas.pdf. Accessed May 21, 2019. 

Lerner, Max. It’s Later Than You Think: The Need For a Militant Democracy. New York: Viking, 1938. Internet Archive, https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.74569/page/n7. Accessed May 19, 2019. 

Lerner, Max “Propaganda’s Golden Age.” The Nation. November 11, 1939: 522-524. EBSO American Periodicals. http://web.b.ebscohost.com.exeter.idm.oclc.org/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=4&sid=969a5960-d335-46b3-97c6-6c4be90351a4%40sessionmgr103. Accessed May 22, 2019. 

Lippmann, Walter. “Constitutional Checks and Balances.” Los Angeles Times, April 27, 1937. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. https://search-proquest-com.exeter.idm.oclc.org/docview/164702806/753354AF70764F61PQ/. Accessed May 19, 2019.

Life. “Jehovah’s Witnesses, Who Refuse to Salute the U.S. Flag, Hold Their National Convention.” August 12, 1940. https://books.google.com/books?id=00UEAAAAMBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false. Accessed May 14, 2019. 

Loewenstein, Karl. “Democracy and Fundamental Rights, I.” The American Political Science Review. 31, n. 4 (Aug., 1937): 638-658. JSTOR. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1948103. Accessed May 18, 2019.

Loewenstein, Karl. “Militant Democracy and Fundamental Rights, II.” The American Political Science Review. 31, n. 4 (Aug. 1937): 638-658. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/1948103. Accessed May 18, 2019.

Loewenstein, Karl. “Legislative Control of Political Extremism in European Democracies I,” Columbia Law Review. 38, n. 4 (Apr., 1938): 591-622, JSTOR. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1116432. Accessed May 18, 2019.

Loewenstein, Karl. “Legislative Control of Political Extremism in European Democracies II.” Columbia Law Review, 38, n. 5 (May, 1938): 725-774. JSTOR. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1116737 . Accessed May 18, 2019. 

Martin, Everett Dean for the National Civil Liberties Bureau. The Mob Mind vs. Civil Liberty. New York: American Civil Liberties Bureau, 1920. Eugene Debs Papers, Indiana State University, http://debs.indstate.edu/m379m6_1920.pdf Accessed May 16, 2019.

Mumford, Lewis. Faith for Living. New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1940. Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.190139/page/n81. Accessed May 17, 2019.

The Nation. “Our Enemies Within.” June 22, 1940. http://web.b.ebscohost.com.exeter.idm.oclc.org/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=30&sid=5133a0f6-afe3-4676-a220-bbb692d566c4%40 . Accessed May 20, 2019. 

National Civil Liberties Bureau, War-Time Prosecutions and Mob Violence. New York: National Civil Liberties Bureau. March 1919. Hathi Trust. https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uiug.30112039356925 .Accessed May 16, 2019.

New York Times. “Guard Civil Rights, Murphy Asks Cities.” May 16, 1939. ProQuest, https://search-proquest-com.exeter.idm.oclc.org/docview/103001466/75920574FD204398PQ/1?. Accessed May 16, 2019.

New York Times. “Murphy Demands Law Enforcement.” April 20, 1939. ProQuest, https://search-proquest-com.exeter.idm.oclc.org/docview/102806779/627D9930A5E14201PQ/3 . Accessed May 16, 2019.

New York Times. “Mr. Murphy’s Address on Intolerance.” January 8, 1940. ProQuest Historical Newspapers.

https://search-proquest

com.exeter.idm.oclc.org/docview/105191922/43686DC69E3A4F49PQ/1 Accessed May 21, 2019.

New York Times. “Beaten on Refusal to Salute the Flag: 61 of Jehovah’s Witnesses Attacked in Illinois Town and Taken to Jail.” June 7, 1940. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. https://search-proquest-com.exeter.idm.oclc.org/docview/105201808/7AEAEDD6A6DE4D5BPQ. Accessed May 12, 2019. 

New York Times. ”Maine Mob Burns Jehovah Sect Home.” June 10, 1940. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. https://search-proquest-com.exeter.idm.oclc.org/docview/105360956/4A7474F925684768PQ/ .Accessed May 12, 2019.

New York Times, “Liberties Union Assails U.S. Course.” July 15, 1940. ProQuest Hisitorical Newspapers. https://search-proquest-com.exeter.idm.oclc.org/docview/105253524/E5E01946023E4F95PQ/1?.Accessed May 20, 2019. 

O’Brian, John Lord. “Uncle Sam’s Spy Policies,” Forum, 61, (April 1919): 407-416. Unz Review.http://www.unz.com/print/Forum-1919apr-00407/ Accessed May 18, 2019.

Riesman, David. “Democracy and Defamation: Control of Group Libel.” Columbia Journalism Review, 42, n. 5 (May, 1942): 727-780. JSTOR. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1117690 . Accessed May 18, 2019. 

Seldes, George. Facts and Facsism. New York: In Fact, Inc., 1943. Internet Archive. https://ia800209.us.archive.org/12/items/FactsAndFascism/FactsandFascism.pdf. Accessed May 23, 2019. 

Thompson, Dorothy. “On the Record: The Race Against Freedom.” Washington Post, March 13, 1941. ProQuest. https://search-proquest-com.exeter.idm.oclc.org/docview/151390911/CAB4013AE364580PQ. Accessed May 20, 2019. 

Time, “Witnesses in Trouble.” June 24, 1940. Accessed May 7, 2019.

Warner, Arthur. “The Truth About the American Legion.” The Nation. July 6, 1921, ProQuest The Nation Archive. http://web.b.ebscohost.com.exeter.idm.oclc.org/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=4&sid=fa7be2f6-b396-4ede-b7fe-03d529f673f0%40pdc-v-sessmgr02. Accessed May 20, 2019.

Wechsler, James. “The Coughlin Terror.” The Nation, July 22, 1939. EBSCO American Periodicals. http://web.b.ebscohost.com.exeter.idm.oclc.org/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=2&sid=557d177c-6c8f-43f9-ad3d-d949d8054965%40pdc-v-sessmgr05 . Accessed May 17, 2019.

Court Cases

Abrams v. United States, 250 U.S. 616 (1919). Google Scholar. https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=14321466231676186426&q. Accessed May 23, 2019. 

Beauharnais v. Illinois, 343 U.S. 350 (1952). Google Scholar. https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=11103450757210626375, argued 1951. 

Buffkins v. City of Omaha, Douglas Cty., 922 F.2d 465 (1990). Google Scholar. https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=17585701692520011816. Accessed May 11, 2019. 

Cafeteria Employees Union, Local 302, et al. V Angelos et al., 320 U.S. 293 (1943), Google Scholar, https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=6005568421109571244&q (accessed May 14, 2019).

Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire, 315 U.S. 568 (1942). Google Scholar. https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=124249671461500618. Accessed May 3, 2019.

City of Houston, Texas v. Hill, 482 U.S. 451 (1987). Google Scholar. https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=3837274703391855779 Accessed May 19, 2019. 

Cohen v. California, 403 U.S. 15 (1971). in Google Scholar. https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=7398433541275578772. Accessed May 5, 2019. 

Collin v. Smith, 578 F. 2d 1197 (1978), in Google Scholar. https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=7369966442251414810. Accessed May 15, 2019. 

Edwards, et al. v. South Carolina, 372 U.S. 229 (1963). Google Scholar. https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=527941814843853341. Accessed May 6, 2019. 

Gitlow v. New York, 268 U.S. 652 (1925). Google Scholar. https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=5505973138575755803&q=gitlow+v+new+york&hl=en&as_sdt=2006. 

Hess v. Indiana, 414 U.S. 105 (1973). Google Scholar. https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=4042159652386241321. Accessed May 14, 2019.

Kunz v. New York, 340 U.S. 290 (1951). Google Scholar. https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=9105752986676100521. Accessed May 19, 2019. 

Norwell v. City of Cincinnati, 414 U.S. 14 (1973). GoogleScholar. https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=10674106125018305233. Accessed May 9, 2019. 

Papachristou v. City of Jacksonville, 405 U.S. 156 (1972). Google Scholar. https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=15009844350298299825. Accessed May 6, 2019. 

Street v. New York, 394 U.S. 576 (1969). Google Scholar https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=6391101560513832626. Accessed May 7, 2019. 

R.A.V. v City of St.Paul, Minnesota, 505 U.S. 377 (1992). Google Scholar. https://scholar.google.com/scholar_casecase=14621372290934958371. Accessed May 9, 2019. 

Rosenfeld v. New Jersey, US 408 U.S. 901 (1972). CaseLaw. https://caselaw.findlaw.com/us-supreme-court/408/901.html. Accessed May 12, 2019. 

Smith v. Collin, 439 US 916, 99 S. Ct. 291, 58 L. Ed. 2d 264 (1978). FindLaw. https://caselaw.findlaw.com/us-supreme-court/439/916.html. Accessed May 15, 2019. 

Snyder v. Phelps, 131 S.Ct. 1207 (2011). Google Scholar, https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=2981429692939250360. Accessed May 10, 2019). 

State v. Chaplinsky, 18 A.2d 754, 91 N.H. 310. Free Law Project, CourtListener. https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/3576028/state-v-chaplinsky/. Accessed May 3, 2019.

State v. Walter Chaplinsky, Docket Number 2119. Arrest Warrant for Walter Chaplinsky. April 6, 1940. Strafford County Superior Court, William A. Grimes Justice and Administration Building, Dover, NH. 

Terminiello v. Chicago, 337 U.S. 1 (1949). Google Scholar. https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=2189837708321658845. Accessed May 8, 2019. 

Virginia v. Black, et al, 538 U.S. 343 (2003). Google Scholar. https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=2729037874515332053. Accessed May 9, 2019.

West Virginia School Board v. Barnette. 319 U.S. 624 (1943). Google Scholar. https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=8030119134463419441&q. Accessed May 16, 2019. . 

Younger v. Harris, 401 U.S. 37 (1971). Google Scholar. https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=2453423928277325927 Accessed May 6, 2019.

Secondary Sources

Ackerman, Bruce A. We The People. Volume 1: Foundations. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993.

Amar, Akhil Reed. “The Case of the Missing Amendments: R.A.V. v City of St. Paul.” Harvard Law Review, 106, 124 (1992-1993). 124-161. Yale Law School, Faculty Scholarship Series, Paper 1039, digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/fss_papers/1039. Access May 6, 2019.

Ball, Howard and Phillip J. Cooper. Of Power and Right: Hugo Black, William O. Douglas, and America’s Constitutional Revolution. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992.

Barber, Hollis W. “Religious Liberty v Police Power: Jehovah’s Witness,” The American Political Science Association, 41, no. 2 (April 1947): 226-247. www.jstor.org/stable/1950708. Accessed May 10, 2019.

Bell, Daniel. The Radical Right. New York: Doubleday, 1963. Internet Archive, https://archive.org/details/radicalrightthen010584mbp/page/n7. Accessed May 21, 2019.

Bennett, David H. The Party of Fear: From Nativist Movements to the New Right in American History. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988.

Bixby, David M. “The Roosevelt Court, Democratic Ideology, and Minority Rights: Another Look at United States v. Classic.” Yale Law Journal, 90, n.4 (March, 1981): 741-815. JSTOR. https://www.jstor.org/stable/795900. Accessed May 14, 2019.

Blasi, Vincent. “The Pathological Perspective and the First Amendment,” Columbia Law Review, 85, no. 3 (April 1985): 449-514. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/1122510. Accessed May 14, 1985. 

Campbell, Alec. “The Sociopolitical Origins of the American Legion.” Theory and Society, 39, n. 1 (January 2010): 1-24. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/40587556 . Accessed May 9, 2019.

Cappozolla, Christopher. “The Only Badge Needed Is Your Patriotic Fervor: Vigilance, Coercion, and the Law in World War I America.” The Journal of American History, 88, n.4 (March, 2002): 1354-1382. JSTOR. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2700601 Accessed May 10, 2019.

Clearly, Edward J. Beyond the Burning Cross: The First Amendment and the Landmark R.A.V. Case. New York: Random House, 1994.

Currie, David P. "The Constitution in the Supreme Court: Civil Rights and Liberties, 1930-1941." Duke Law Journal 800 (1987): 800-830. University of Chicago Law School, ChicagoUnbound. https://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=6112&context=journal_articles .Accessed May 17, 2019. 

Harvard Law Review, eds. “The Demise of the "Chaplinsky" Fighting Words Doctrine: An Argument for Its Interment.” Harvard Law Review. 106, no. 5. (March 1993): 1129-1146. JSTOR. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1341686. Accessed May 9, 2019.

Hofstader, Richard. The Paranoid Style in American Politics. New York: Knopf, 1965. Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/TheParanoidStyleInAmericanPolitics. Accessed May 14, 2019.

Howard, J. Woodford, Jr. Mr. Justice Murphy: A Political Biography. Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1969. Google Books,https://books.google.com/booksid=2hTWCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA561&lpg=PA561&dq#v=snippet&q=cantwell&f=false . Accessed May 23, 2019. 

Friedlieb, Linda. “The Epitome of an Insult: A Constitutional Approach to Designated Fighting Words.” The University of Chicago Law Review, 72, No. 1, Symposium: Antitrust (Winter, 2005), 385-415. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/4495498. Accessed May 8, 2019. 

Historical Society, Rochester, New Hampshire, “Parson Main.” Accessed May 7, 2019. https://rochesterhistoricalnh.org/2012/10/01/124/ ). 

Kahn, Robert A. "Why Do Europeans Ban Hate Speech? A Debate Between Karl Loewenstein and Robert Post." Hofstra Law Review: 41: Iss. 3 (2013): 544-585. Scholarly Commons, http://scholarlycommons.law.hofstra.edu/hlr/vol41/iss3/2 . Accessed May 19, 2019. 

Kalven, Harry Jr. A Worthy Tradition: Freedom of Speech in America. New York: Harper and Row, 1988. 

Kirkus Reviews. https://www.kirkusreviews.com/book-reviews/lewis-mumford-11/faith-for-living/. Accessed May 17, 2019) 

Knox, Zoe. “Jehovah’s “Witnesses as Un-Americans? Scriptural Injunctions, Civil Liberties, and Patriotism,” Journal of American Studies, 47 (2013) 4, 1081-1108. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/24485876 Accessed May 11, 2019. 

Lopez, Christy E. “Disorderly (mis) Conduct: The Problem with Contempt of Cop Arrests.” American Constitution Society for Law and Policy. Issue Brief. June 2010. United States Court for the Ninth Circuit, Court of Appeals. http://cdn.ca9.uscourts.gov/datastore/library/2015/08/10/Velazquez_ContemptOfCop.pdf. Accessed May 11, 2019.

MacKey, Kevin. “The Triumph of Legal Realism.” Michigan State University College of Law, January 1, 2019. DigitalCommons. https://digitalcommons.law.msu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1146&context=king. Accessed May 18, 2019. 

Mannheimer, Michael. “The Fighting Words Doctrine.” Columbia Law Review. 93, No 6 (Oct., 1993): 1527-71. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1123082. Accessed May 7, 2019.

Manwaring, David. Render Unto Caesar: The Flag Salute Controversy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962.

May, Henry. The End of American Innocence: 192-1917. New York: Columbia University Press, 1959.

McDonnell, Francis. Insidious Foes: The Axis Fifth Column and the American Home Front. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995. EBook, https://ebookcentral-proquest-com.exeter.idm.oclc.org/lib/phillipsexeter-ebooks/detail.action?docID=241535. Accessed May 14, 2019.

Purcell, Edward A., Jr. “American Jurisprudence between the Wars: Legal Realism and the Crisis of Democratic Theory,” The American Historical Review, 75, no. 2 (Dec., 1969): 424-446. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/1849692. Accessed May 18.2019.

Purcell, Edward A., Jr. The Crisis of Democratic Theory: Scientific Naturalism and the Problem of Value. Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1973. 158, Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/crisisofdemocrat00edwa/page/158. Accessed May 18, 2019.

Rutherglen, George. “International Shoe and the Legacy of Legal Realism.“ The Supreme Court Review. 2001 (2001): 347-374. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/3109692 . Accessed May 19, 2019. 

Schmidt, Patrick. “The Dilemma to a Free People: Justice Robert Jackson, Walter Bagehot, and the Creation of a Conservative Jurisprudence” Law and History Review. 20, no. 3 (Autumn, 2002): 517-539. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/1556318. Accessed May 20, 2019. 

Smith, Chuck E. “Review of Judging Jehovah’s Witnesses,” Journal of Law and Religion, 16, no. 2 (2001): 539-577.JSTOR. https://www.jstor.org/stable/23921380. Accessed May 10, 2019.

Smith, David Thomas. Essays on the Persecution of Religious Minorities. Chapter 4, “Violent Civil Society: The American Legion, the State, and the Persecution of Jehovah’s Witnesses.” Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Political Science, University of Michigan, 2011, https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/84555/davidsth_1.pdf?sequence=1. Accessed May 14, 2019.

Steel, Ronald. Walter Lippmann and the American Century. New York: Little Brown, 1980.

Steigmann-Gall, Richard. “Star-Spangled Fascism: American Interwar Political Extremism in Comparative Perspective,” Social History, 42, no 1, (2017): 94-119. DOI: https://10.1080/03071022.2016.1256592. Accessed May 20, 2019. 

Stone, Geoffrey. Perilous Times: Free Speech in Wartime. New York: W.W. Norton, 2004. 

Weinrib, Laura. “Civil Liberties Enforcement and the New Deal State.” Yale Law School. (April 18, 2014):1-48. https://law.yale.edu/system/files/area/center/isp/documents/laura_weinrib_-_civil_liberties_enforcement_and_the_new_deal_state_-_fesc.pdf . Accessed May 21, 2019. 

---

Nicholas Schwarz is a second year student at the University of Chicago, where he is double majoring in Classics and in Fundamentals: Issues and Texts. He wrote this essay while a student at Phillips Exeter Academy, where it won the Negley Prize in American History.